Tibetan Buddhist Sculpture: A Reflection of Culture and History

The Unique Style of Tibetan Buddhist Sculpture

Tibetan Buddhist sculpture has evolved over centuries by absorbing and blending artistic influences from India, Nepal, Kashmir, and China. This fusion has resulted in a distinct sculptural tradition with diverse forms, intricate craftsmanship, and unique regional characteristics.

These sculptures vividly depict the evolution of Tibetan Buddhism, reflecting its core beliefs and the spiritual aspirations of the Tibetan people. Additionally, they offer valuable insights into Tibet’s historical transformations, economic fluctuations, cultural exchanges, and technological advancements.

Thus, Tibetan Buddhist sculptures serve as both a vessel for Tibetan culture and a mirror through which we can understand the region’s social and religious history.

Major Schools of Tibetan Buddhist Sculpture

Throughout history, Tibetan Buddhist sculpture has developed various stylistic traditions. As early as the Tibetan Empire (7th–9th century), influences from India, Nepal, Swat, Kashmir, China, and Khotan made their way into Tibet. Over time, Tibetan artisans not only assimilated these foreign styles but also incorporated indigenous artistic elements, forming distinct sculptural traditions representative of Tibetan cultural identity.

1. Indian Sculptural Traditions

Indian sculpture had a significant impact on Tibetan Buddhist art, with various regional styles shaping Tibetan representations of Buddhist deities.

(1) Eastern Indian Sculpture

Eastern India, particularly Bengal, was a major center for Tantric Buddhism between the 8th and 12th centuries. Sculptures from this period are categorized into early, middle, and late phases.

• Early Period (8th–9th century): Inspired by the Gupta style, sculptures from this era feature well-defined facial features, deep-set eyes, prominent noses, and thin, form-fitting garments. The most common subjects were Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and deities like Green Tara and Avalokiteshvara.
• Middle Period (10th–12th century): Characterized by elegant proportions and an increasingly esoteric aesthetic due to the rise of Vajrayana Buddhism. Figures were adorned with intricate jewelry, reflecting a shift toward more elaborate designs.
• Late Period (12th century): Sculptures became rigid and less dynamic, with exaggerated ornamentation but a decline in lifelike expressions.

(2) Central Indian Sculpture

Depictions of Shakyamuni Buddha were common, featuring a balanced physique, a prominent ushnisha (cranial bump), elongated earlobes, and finely carved flowing robes.

(3) Western Indian Sculpture

Divided into early and late styles:

• Early Western Indian sculptures were more archaic, with triangular faces, embedded head ornaments, and silver-inlaid eyes and mouths.
• Later sculptures displayed more naturalistic features, with elongated forms and elaborate floral patterns on robes.

(4) Southern Indian Sculpture

Characterized by broad-set eyes, a prominent nose, and a slightly protruding lower lip. Figures often had tightly draped robes and large, finely carved thrones.

(5) Northern Indian Sculpture

Renowned for its harmonious proportions, expressive facial features, and refined decorative elements. Many of the standing Buddha images we see today follow this stylistic tradition.

(6) Special “Danjunmei” Sculptures

These were funded by the Indian scholar Dorje Dampa and often depicted Buddha in teaching (Dharmachakra) or subduing demons postures, representing significant moments in Shakyamuni’s life.

Nepalese Sculpture Schools

Nepal, sharing a border with Tibet, has a long history of sculpture with a unique artistic style. Its Buddhist sculptures began influencing Tibet as early as the 7th century, and by the 12th century, Nepalese artistry had become the dominant influence on Tibetan Buddhist sculpture. The development of Nepalese sculpture can be categorized into four distinct periods:

1. First Period (circa 1st century – late 6th century)

During this period, Nepalese sculpture mainly imitated Indian styles, featuring simple designs and minimal decoration. The main subjects were sculptures of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas from the Mahayana tradition. A notable example is a bronze statue of Shakyamuni Buddha, discovered in the Kathmandu Valley and dating back to 591 CE. Currently housed in the Cleveland Museum of Art in the United States, this statue is considered Nepal’s earliest known Buddhist sculpture. It depicts Buddha with tight curls on his head, wearing a full-body robe, holding the robe’s corner with his left hand, and making the gesture of fearlessness (Abhaya Mudra) with his right hand, standing on a square pedestal.

2. Second Period (early 7th century – early 8th century)

During this phase, sculptures became heavily influenced by Vajrayana Buddhism, displaying strong Nepalese ethnic art characteristics. A prime example is a standing Tara statue from the 7th–8th century, currently part of the Japanese Nitta Collection.

Tara, a key deity in Vajrayana Buddhism, became a popular subject for Nepalese sculptors. Typical depictions of Tara include a floral crown, an inverted triangular face, slightly parted lips with a gentle smile, a short necklace, a bare upper body, a lower body wrapped in a skirt, a sash draped diagonally across the hips, and decorative bracelets on her limbs. Her pose follows the elegant “three-bend” (tribhanga) posture.

3. Third Period (early 8th century – late 9th century)

This period saw Nepalese sculptures incorporating foreign artistic elements. Characteristics of sculptures from this era include:

• A triple-flowered crown.
• A pointed, rounded halo around the head, with flame-like jagged edges.
• A rustic and archaic style reminiscent of the Pala school of India.
• A distinctive Nepalese feature: a sacred thread draped diagonally over the left shoulder, looping naturally around the waist before crossing the horizontal belt.

Figures during this time exhibit traditional Nepalese sculpting techniques, including broad foreheads, sharp chins, slightly lowered heads, and delicate facial features with slightly twisted postures.

4. Fourth Period (early 10th century – late 12th century)

This era marked a transition toward a more refined and lifelike sculptural style, with an emphasis on humanistic and secular aesthetics. The main characteristics of sculptures from this period include:

• Large-headed, broad-shouldered Buddhas with rounded forms.
• Proportional and well-structured bodies.
• Graceful postures with intricate yet harmonious decorations, blending solemnity with a touch of earthly realism.

Buddha statues were the most common subject, typically depicted in a seated posture. According to Tibetan Buddhist Iconography and Appreciation, sculptures from this period often feature:

• A prominent head with a broad forehead.
• An inverted trapezoidal facial shape.
• A flat, dish-like crown.
• A smooth ushnisha (cranial protuberance).
• A full and rounded face with a refined chin.
• Large ears extending to the shoulders.
• Slender eyebrows and delicate facial features.
• A calm and composed expression.

Popular sculptural subjects from this era included Avalokiteshvara, Tara, and Maitreya. Avalokiteshvara was often depicted holding a lotus, Tara’s crown featured a miniature Buddha, and Maitreya held a purification vessel, all portrayed in the elegant “three-bend” stance.

Nepalese Sculptures in Tibet

Nepalese Buddhist sculptures entered Tibet around the time of King Songtsen Gampo. When he married the Nepalese princess Bhrikuti Devi, she was accompanied by several renowned Nepalese sculptors. Among them, the famous artist Arniko created eleven Avalokiteshvara statues.

However, even before this period, Nepalese-style sculptures were already present in Tibet. The three Buddha statues at Pabongka Palace in Lhasa are early examples. Additionally, the two famous statues at Tashilhunpo Monastery in Shigatse—Jampa Buddha (Maitreya) and White Tara—were sculpted by Nepalese artists during the tenure of the 2nd Dalai Lama, Gendun Gyatso (1475–1542).

The Central Plains Sculpture Schools

The cultural exchange between the Central Plains region and Tibet can be traced back to the prehistoric Stone Age, and since then, it has continued almost uninterrupted throughout history. Tibetan scholars generally refer to the sculpture styles of the Tang and Song dynasties from the Central Plains as “Inland Classical Sculpture,” while sculptures created after the Ming Dynasty, particularly from the Yongle period onward, are known as “Inland New Sculpture.”

1. Tang Dynasty Sculpture

During the Tang Dynasty, Han-Tibetan relations entered a new era. The exchanges between the two regions became more frequent and encompassed a wide range of aspects, including politics, economy, culture, religion, and technology. Among these, Buddhist exchanges were particularly prominent, notably through the influence of Central Plains Buddhism on Tibet. For example, Princess Wencheng brought a life-sized statue of the 12-year-old Buddha Shakyamuni and 360 Buddhist scriptures to Tibet. Later, Princess Jincheng introduced Central Plains Buddhist rituals. Additionally, many Han Chinese sculptors traveled to Tibet to build temples and create statues.

The main characteristics of Tang Dynasty sculptures include:

• The Buddha figures have elongated facial structures, flat noses, and solemn expressions.
• Bodhisattvas wear floral crowns, have wide-open eyes, and bear distinct characteristics of Central Plains sculpture.

2. Yuan Dynasty Sculpture

During the Yuan Dynasty, Tibetan Buddhist sculptures were primarily influenced by Nepalese art, particularly through the works of the renowned Nepalese sculptor Anige (1245–1306). His “Western Heavenly Brahma” sculptural style significantly shaped Tibetan Buddhist art and also influenced the inland Buddhist sculpture tradition.

The main characteristics of Yuan Dynasty sculptures include:

• Buddha figures with high spiral hair buns, broad and square faces, straight eyebrows, large ears extending to the shoulders, and calm expressions.
• Robes covering the right shoulder, skirts for the lower body, and chest decorations with bead patterns.
• Realistic drapery folds on the legs, giving a sense of grandeur.
• This period marks the transitional phase where Han and Tibetan sculptural elements blended.

3. Ming Dynasty Sculpture

Ming Dynasty sculptures, particularly those from the imperial court, stand out in Tibetan Buddhist art. These sculptures were primarily produced during the Yongle (1408–1421) and Xuande (1426–1435) periods, collectively known as “Yongle-Xuande Court Sculptures” or simply “Yongxuan Sculptures.” These sculptures are not only artistically refined but also serve as historical testimonies to Han-Tibetan friendship.

Early Yongle Period (1408–1421)

This was the foundational period of Ming court sculpture. While the overall form and decorative style were established, some elements retained influences from Indian and Nepalese sculpture.
Characteristics:

• Elegant body proportions and charming expressions.
• Rich decorative elements and refined aesthetics.
• Distinctive elongated, full lotus petals with strong, powerful curves.

Late Yongle Period (1421–1424)

This was the period when the sculptural style became more standardized.
Characteristics:

• More stable body proportions.
• Faces became squarer, mouths larger, and philtrums longer.
• Lotus petals became broader, and scroll patterns appeared on the petal tips.

Xuande Period (1426–1435)

During this time, Ming court sculptures continued to develop.
Characteristics:

• Buddha figures became plumper and slightly bulky.
• Faces were broader and more masculine.
• Lotus petals became larger, more rounded, and more intricately decorated with scroll patterns.

Unique Features of Yongle-Xuande Sculptures

1. Diverse Subject Matter – The sculptures included deities such as Green Tara, Manjushri, Four-Armed Avalokiteshvara, Vajrasattva, Shakyamuni, Akshobhya, Vajrapani, Maitreya, Medicine Buddha, Amitabha, Vairocana, Amoghasiddhi, Ratnasambhava, Mahakala, Hayagriva, Chakrasamvara, Hevajra, Palden Lhamo, Yama, and Avalokiteshvara in various forms. These subjects reflect the core religious beliefs of Tibetan Buddhism.
2. Predominance of Peaceful Forms – Many statues depicted deities in peaceful, serene postures, such as Shakyamuni and Green Tara. Green Tara, regarded as one of Avalokiteshvara’s 21 manifestations, is commonly found in Tibetan temples and is highly revered. Tibetans have long honored Princess Wencheng as an incarnation of Green Tara, symbolizing the deep historical and cultural ties between Han and Tibetan people.

4. Qing Dynasty Sculpture

The Qing Dynasty placed significant importance on Tibetan Buddhist sculpture as part of its promotion of Tibetan Buddhism. Emperors Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong were particularly devoted, commissioning numerous temples and sculptures.

• Kangxi (1662–1723) – Established a dedicated imperial sculptural workshop for Tibetan-style Buddha statues.
• Yongzheng (1723–1736) – Converted his residence into the Lama Temple (Yonghegong).
• Qianlong (1736–1796) – Personally supervised and contributed to the design of Buddhist sculptures, producing an astonishing number of statues.

Three main categories of Qing Dynasty Buddhist sculptures:

1. Statues for the Emperor’s religious practice
2. Statues created for the Emperor’s and Empress Dowager’s longevity celebrations
3. Statues commissioned for Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhist monasteries

Characteristics of Qing sculptures:

• Influenced by traditional Central Plains sculptural realism.
• Conformed to contemporary aesthetic preferences and advanced craftsmanship.
• Displayed well-proportioned structures and standardized designs.

Kangxi Period

• Featured statues of Medicine Buddha, Amitabha, and Four-Armed Avalokiteshvara.
• Buddha figures had high spiral hair buns, square and round faces, and prominent five facial features.
• Bodhisattvas wore floral crowns and adorned themselves with sashes, necklaces, and flowing robes, showcasing intricate craftsmanship.

Yongzheng Period

• A notable example is the Maitreya Buddha statue from the collection of renowned antiquities collector Xia Jingchun.
• Features:
  • Five-petaled floral crown, tall gourd-shaped hair bun.
  • Large ears extending to shoulders, adorned with round earrings.
  • High forehead, slightly drooping eyes, raised brow ridges, and prominent nose.
  • Draped shoulder sashes, long skirts, and intricate jewelry.
  • Hands forming the teaching mudra, seated in a relaxed posture.

Qianlong Period

• Statues were grand in scale and well-structured but lacked spiritual depth.
• Four main categories:
  1. Six Types of Buddha Images – Representing wisdom and spiritual cultivation, made of thick bronze with precise casting.
  2. Longevity Buddha Images – Including Amitayus statues, characterized by floral crowns, large earrings, and dignified expressions.
  3. Lamaist Monastery Statues – Designed for Tibetan and Mongolian temples, featuring a blend of Qing court and Tibetan styles.
  4. Personal Devotional Statues of the Emperor – Made with exquisite materials and craftsmanship, often inscribed with personal dedications.

From the Tang Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, sculptural traditions from the Central Plains influenced Tibetan Buddhist art, continuously evolving through different historical periods. The fusion of styles, particularly with Indian and Nepalese elements, shaped Tibetan Buddhist sculpture into a unique artistic tradition that reflected both religious devotion and cultural exchange between Tibet and the Central Plains.

The Wutun Sculptural Tradition

The Wutun sculptural tradition is an influential folk art style within Tibetan Buddhist sculpture. Wutun is located on both banks of the Longwu River in Tongren County, Qinghai Province (known in Tibetan as “Rebgong”). This artistic tradition emerged in the late Ming dynasty. Wutun art is a comprehensive artistic school that includes thangka painting, clay sculpture, butter sculpture, appliqué, brick carving, stone carving, wood carving, and architectural decoration. Among these, sculpture is one of its most significant art forms.

The primary subject of Wutun sculpture is Buddhist imagery, with styles including clay sculpture, wood carving, and stone carving. Clay sculpture is the most common, with both monochrome and painted variants. The sculptures are exquisitely crafted, capturing lifelike expressions, intricate ornamentation, and flowing garment folds, reflecting strong influences from Chinese Central Plains culture.

The distinguishing features of Wutun sculpture include: square-shaped faces for Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and heavenly kings; elongated, oval faces with arched eyebrows and small cherry-like lips for female deities such as Tara, dakinis, and Buddhist consorts—features closely resembling those of Han Chinese figures. The statues have large, expressive eyes with a lively presence. Their clothing is thick, with smooth and natural folds, demonstrating influence from mainland Chinese sculptural styles. While the decorative elements follow traditional Tibetan sculptural conventions, they also incorporate innovative designs. Notable characteristics include:

1. The crowns are conical with slightly flared edges, featuring large petals.
2. Female deities wear long necklaces that loop around the chest before draping downward.
3. Shoulder ornaments are abundant with floral patterns, enhancing their decorative appeal.

7. The Khotan Sculptural Tradition

Khotan was an ancient kingdom in the Western Regions, located in present-day Hotan, Xinjiang. Historically, Buddhism flourished in this area. During the Tang dynasty, Princess Jincheng married into Tibet and actively invited Khotanese monks to spread the Dharma. She also arranged for Khotanese monks who had fled to Anxi, Bolü, and Kashmir to settle in seven monasteries, including Gongqu Monastery.

Khotan sculpture is a hybrid artistic form. According to Appreciation of Tibetan Buddhist Sculpture, Khotan sculptures integrate artistic influences from Gandhara, India, Persia, and Sogdia. “Among these, Gandharan artistic elements are the most striking, with sculptural forms reflecting Gandharan style in body proportions, drapery patterns, and pedestal design.”

One of the most representative works is a seated Shakyamuni Buddha statue housed in the Hotan Museum. The Buddha has a round face, wide-open eyes, and wears a right-shoulder-exposed monastic robe. He is seated in a lotus position on a double-lotus pedestal, displaying the distinctive aesthetic of Gandharan Buddhist art.

8. The Mongolian Sculptural Tradition

Early Mongolian sculptures resembled Tang dynasty styles, characterized by broad lower faces, unclear mouth and eye contours, slightly sunken cheeks, and robust hands and feet. Later, Mongolian sculptures adopted styles similar to the Ming dynasty’s Yongle period, featuring square faces for men and round faces for women, elongated eyes with a “three-fold” eyelid design, and elegant, dignified drapery that emphasized facial expressions and vitality.

Mongolian Buddhist sculpture can be broadly categorized into two regional styles:

(1) Southern Mongolian Buddhist Sculpture

Buddhist sculpture in Southern Mongolia began during the Ming dynasty and flourished in the Kangxi and Qianlong periods of the Qing dynasty. The statues from this period are not only numerous but also finely crafted, often modeled after imperial court sculptures. Three primary types of sculptures were popular:

1. Mongolian Sculpture
   This was the dominant style in Southern Mongolia, evident in facial features, body proportions, ornamentation, and craftsmanship. These statues typically had broad, flat faces, short and wide noses, deep-set mouths, and robust, upright torsos with larger upper bodies. Some sculptures depicted figures wearing Mongolian-style cloaks, ridged helmets, armor, or tall boots, reflecting strong regional characteristics.
2. Beijing-Influenced Sculpture
   The Qing dynasty’s sculptural manual, Treatise on Iconometric Proportions, was authored by the Mongolian scholar Gombujab. Additionally, the white sandalwood Maitreya statue in Yonghe Temple was sculpted under the supervision of the Mongolian craftsman Chakhan Darhan Lama. These facts highlight the deep connection between Southern Mongolian and Beijing sculptural traditions. Many surviving lama temple sculptures from the Qing dynasty in Southern Mongolia closely mimic imperial court styles, incorporating details such as elaborate lotus pedestals, the distinctive inverted-U shape of wrathful deities’ garments, and highly detailed folds in robes, giving them a strong three-dimensional texture.
3. Wutun-Influenced Sculpture
   Wutun-style features appear in certain aspects of Southern Mongolian sculpture, particularly in crowns and attire. The crowns have outward-curving brims and complex floral patterns, while the robes exhibit natural, flowing drapery. Buddhas wear traditional monastic robes, while Bodhisattvas and female deities adorn themselves with earrings, bracelets, anklets, and layered necklaces, resembling the decorative style of Wutun sculptures. These three sculptural styles were the predominant artistic influences in Qing dynasty Southern Mongolian Buddhist sculpture. They often appeared individually or blended, creating a diverse and distinctive artistic landscape.

(2) Northern Mongolian Buddhist Sculpture

The development of Northern Mongolian Buddhist sculpture was pioneered by the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, Zanabazar (1635–1723). He personally sculpted an image of Amitayus in 1683, showcasing his exceptional sculptural skills and establishing the foundation for a unique Northern Mongolian sculptural style.

By the 18th century, the reverence for Tibetan Buddhism by the Qing dynasty significantly boosted the development of Buddhist sculpture in Northern Mongolia. The key characteristics of these sculptures include:

• High ushnisha with tightly coiled hair.
• Broad, rounded faces with slightly downcast eyes.
• A white urna (auspicious mark) between the eyebrows.
• Large, elongated ears that extend to the shoulders.
• Balanced body proportions, often depicted wearing a right-shoulder-exposed monastic robe and seated in a lotus posture on a lotus pedestal.

Bodhisattva statues often feature elaborate floral crowns or topknot crowns, with U-shaped curling ornaments at the ears. Their bodies are well-proportioned, draped with flowing scarves, and dressed in long skirts. The attire is made of thin, translucent fabric, and they are adorned with necklaces, pearl garlands, armlets, wristbands, and anklets, reflecting Mongolian artistic sensibilities.

These artistic characteristics make Northern Mongolian Buddhist sculpture a distinct and highly refined tradition within the broader world of Tibetan Buddhist art.

Tibetan Sculpture Schools

Tibetan Buddhist sculpture, while adhering to its own sculptural traditions, has absorbed influences from various artistic styles, including those from India, Nepal, Kashmir, Swat, China’s Central Plains, Wutun, Khotan, and Mongolia. As a result, Tibet developed its own unique sculptural traditions. According to the book Tibetan, the art of bronze sculpture alone has evolved into nine distinct styles over more than 1,300 years, starting from the Tibetan Empire (Tubo) period:

1. Early Dharma King Bronze Sculptures

These refer to the bronze statues sponsored by King Songtsen Gampo. They were crafted in red and white bronze and have distinct features: a full face, slender eyes, a prominent nose, well-defined lips, and a thick lower beard. The face is relatively long, with fluid hand lines, minimal drapery folds, and a lotus seat carved in either a single or double-layered petal design, finely detailed. Some statues lack a lotus seat and instead have a simple, thick cushion. The royal statues in temples wear crescent-shaped capes and Tibetan boots, sculpted to resemble Tibetan figures. These statues are entirely gilded, exuding grandeur and splendor.

2. Middle Period Dharma King Bronze Sculptures

These were created during the reign of King Trisong Detsen (755–797) and are mainly housed in the Gegye Hall of Samye Monastery. Most were cast in purple-copper alloy, giving them a darker hue. These sculptures feature rounder faces and thick paintwork, though the craftsmanship is relatively crude.

3. Late Period Dharma King Bronze Sculptures

These date back to the reign of King Tri Tsuk Detsen (815–836). Most were made of white-bronze alloy, and many were crafted by Indian sculptors, closely resembling 9th-century Indian Buddhist statues. However, they are fuller in form and have a more natural, lively posture. Fine details are often inlaid with silver or purple copper, such as silver pupils and eyes, or purple copper corneas and tongues.

4. Kadam Bronze Statues

These were mainly created during the flourishing period of the Kadam school, in areas such as Lhodrak, Nye (modern-day Longzi County), Loro, and Yarlung. The style was introduced by the Indian Buddhist master Atisha (982–1054), and later, the Tibetan lamas Yeshe Ö (Jigwang) and Jangchub Ö (Bodhiwang) invited sculptors to create numerous statues.

The Reting Monastery, founded by Dromtönpa (1005–1064), housed many Kadam bronze statues. Some Kagyu monasteries also produced numerous Buddha statues and stupas in this style. These statues were cast using natural copper, gold-silver alloys, purple-copper alloys, and an eight-metal alloy, resulting in exceptional quality and exquisite craftsmanship, making them almost indistinguishable from Indian sculptures of the time.

5. Lhoyu Chumpa Bronze Statues

These refer to the works of the sculptor Lhoyu Chumpa. Influenced by Ming Dynasty Buddhist sculptures from inland China, these statues closely resemble the bronze sculptures of the Yongle period (1403–1424). They have elegant designs, with naturally relaxed legs in the lotus posture, and a double-layered lotus base forming a compact floral cluster with finely carved petals.

6. Pema Karpo Bronze Statues

Named after the sculptor Pema Karpo, these statues feature very thin gilding and slightly rough seams. Their defining characteristics include a slightly protruding lower jaw, a slender physique, and monk robes adorned with floral patterns.

7. Dojé Benken Bronze Statues

This sculptural school originated during the time of the Fifth Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (1617–1682), beneath the Potala Palace. The renowned sculptors Opa Gupa (also known as “Hoda”) and Chukuba pioneered this style, which later became known as the “Academic Sculpture School” in modern times. These statues contain a high proportion of purple-copper alloy, making them superior in quality, aesthetically refined, and meticulously crafted. During the Qing Dynasty, all sculptures commissioned by the Ganden Phodrang government or made as diplomatic gifts originated from this style.

8. Tashilhunpo Monastery Bronze Statues

These were produced at Tashilhunpo Monastery in Shigatse. Their sculptural techniques closely resemble the Dojé Benken bronze statues from Lhasa, featuring exquisite craftsmanship and widespread recognition.

9. Derge Bronze Statues

These were crafted in Derge, located in Ganzi Prefecture, Sichuan. While Derge is renowned for its woodblock printing of Buddhist scriptures, it also produced numerous high-quality bronze sculptures. Most were made from purple-copper alloys, further cementing the region’s reputation for fine artistry.